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Bolus stem cell transplantation Several critical parameters have been observed to influence the survival, phenotype, and functional benefits of bolus stem cell transplantation following TBI, including the cell type, injury model, severity, and transplant timing and location, among others. Studies in MSCs have indicated that they are capable of expressing neuronal lineage markers after transplantation into animals that have sustained a TBI169�C171 and that MSC transplantation may facilitate motor E-64 function recovery out to 1 month after injury.169,171 However, concerns have arisen regarding the safety of transplanting MSCs into the brain, as MSCs have been observed to form masses that elicit a significant inflammatory response, whereas NPSCs transplanted under the same conditions did not form such masses.172,173 Therefore, NPSC transplantation is appealing for both its perceived relative safety and the innate R428 ic50 neuronal differentiation capacity of NPSCs. Several studies have been performed using NPSCs to determine the effect of timing and location on transplant fate. Shear et al found that NPSC transplant survival after TBI was significantly higher at more acute time points after injury compared to the later time points, presumably due to glial scarring.174,175 With respect to transplant location, transplant survival and migration into the surrounding tissue were significantly greater in the ipsilateral compared to contralateral hemisphere, in some cases, accompanied by greater motor selleck screening library and cognitive function recovery.176,177 Taken together, these data illustrate some of the many factors that can modulate the therapeutic benefit of stem cell transplantation after TBI. One common thread among the many bolus transplant studies is that very few transplants differentiate into new neurons (