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Vectastain Elite ABC kits (Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, CA) and SigmaFast diaminobenzidine (Sigma-Aldrich) were used to detect binding. Sections were lightly counterstained with hematoxylin. GRP78 intensity was scored in a semiquantitative fashion scoring the intensity of syncytial staining in 10 random fields at 25x magnification. The staining intensity was graded as 0 (no staining), 1+ (weak), 2+ (moderate), or 3+ (strong). The H-score was calculated using the following formula; H-Score = (% at 0) * 0 + (% at 1+) * 1 + (% at 2+) * 2 + (% at 3+) * 3. Western blotting was performed as described elsewhere [9]. Statistical analyses MASP1 were performed using the Prism GraphPad verson 6.0. Differences between study groups were analysed by the two-tailed Mann-Whitney U test and plotted as Box & whiskers with 10-90 percentile. We considered differences to be statistically significant at p check details GRP78 by H-score indicated an approximate 3 fold increased in its intensity (Figure 2D). The majority of the positive staining was found in the syncytiotrophoblast while no or only weak staining was observed in stromal and endothelial cells (Figure 2 A and B). In this study we provide evidence that placental ER stress can be induced by the process of labour, as indicated by the elevated levels of ER stress markers, including GRP78, XBP1 and P-eIF2��. The majority of ER stress induced by labour was found in the syncytiotrophoblast, consistent with the localization of ER stress observed in placentas from cases of IUGR and early-onset PE [9]. Placental ER stress has been implicated in many pregnancy disorders, PFI-2 research buy including small-for-gestational age at high altitude, IUGR, early-onset PE and gestational diabetes, but not in late-onset PE [[9]?and?[12] and HWY, unpublished data]. ER stress response pathways can be induced by a variety of stimuli, including viral infection, hypoxia, oxidative stress and nutrient deprivation. We have previously demonstrated that oxidative stress induced by ischaemia/hypoxia-reoxygenation is a strong inducer of ER stress in vitro in human choriocarcinoma cells [8]?and?[9].