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In a related line of research, when the state of North Carolina liberalized its alcohol-control policies by allowing sales of distilled spirits on-premise ��by the drink,�� Blose and Holder (1987a, 1987b) evaluated the impact of this change on alcohol-related crashes using (at the time rather novel) Olaparib mw time-series analysis models. At about the same time, Cook and Tauchen (1982) and Levy and Sheflin (1985) introduced the first applications of time-series cross-section panel models to the assessment of the effects of alcohol taxes on alcohol use and related problems. Nevertheless, throughout the 1980s the theoretical foundations of policy effects remained relatively undeveloped. Explanations for policy effects were ascribed to the ��full costs�� for alcohol; costs that include both the direct economic costs (i.e., prices) and noneconomic costs of use (e.g., convenience costs related to ease of purchase), or the Ledermann model, a hypothesis which posited that the mean of consumption in a population was somehow proportional to measures of heavy drinking (Duffy, 1978; Ledermann, 1956; Single and Wortley, 1993). Skog (1985) provided a theoretical underpinning to the Ledermann hypothesis based selleck screening library on the concept of ��drinking cultures,�� which linked consumption means to heavy drinking at the population level. During the 1990s and into the 2000s, a number of further theoretical developments took place. First, it was difficult to determine causality: whether outlets were increasing consumption and resulting in problems or whether outlet densities themselves were a response to consumption (Gruenewald et al., 1993). This suggested that the availability issue needed to be considered bepotastine dynamically as changes occurred within systems over time. Subsequently, research began to examine these complex relationships with advances in the development of community systems models (Holder, 1998; Holder and Edwards, 1995) and availability theory (Babor et al., 2003; Stockwell and Gruenewald, 2001) with the use of time series data analyses. We will return to theoretical advances below after we summarize what is currently known about the effects of specific alcohol-control policies on alcohol consumption and related problems. Sales of alcohol Minimum legal drinking age. The minimum legal drinking age (MLDA) aims to reduce youth drinking. Since the end of prohibition in 1933, individual states regulated the MLDA. During the 1970s, the general trend was toward reducing the MLDA. One of the first studies published in this area (Barsby and Marshall, 1977) revealed no statistically significant short-term increases of distilled spirits consumption following reductions in the MLDA.
