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In fact, the CB-TRT does not technically require that alcohol be tension reducing at all, only that one expects this effect in the context of other relevant conditions: ��. . . an individual��s cognitive expectancies concerning selleck screening library the effects of alcohol may exert a greater degree of control over drinking and subsequent behavior than the pharmacological effects of the drug�� (p. 1159). Conceptually, this view stands in direct contrast to Cappell and Herman��s (1972) assertion that the TRT model of drinking is viable only insofar as alcohol can reliably reduce tension. As predicted by the CB-TRT, studies have shown that individuals consume more alcohol than usual when drinking for the purpose of coping with distress find more and that drinking for this purpose is most likely among those who (a) expect alcohol to be effective in reducing distress and (b) doubt their own effectiveness in managing distress without alcohol (Jung, 1977; Kassel et al., 2000; Laurent et al., 1997). (Predictions from CB-TRT studies are also supported for marijuana use; Johnson et al., 2009). Findings showing that those with alcohol problems are more likely than others to expect tension reduction from alcohol and to drink to obtain these effects add face validity to the CB-TRT as a psychosocial model for the etiology of alcohol dependence (Beckman, 1980; Carpenter and Hasin, 1999; Russell and Bond, 1980). Status of the TRT as a comorbidity model. These findings, although consistent with CB-TRT, do not clarify the extent to which it is a general etiological model of substance use disorders (all individuals), a general model of comorbidity (all individuals with any mental disorder), or a specific model of comorbidity (only individuals with a specific type[s] of mental disorder). In fact, since the TRT split off from its psychoanalytic progenitor, the theory has been conspicuously agnostic concerning the quality and quantity of distress most relevant to the model, with many studies purporting to test the TRT operationalizing stress without any reference to mental illness (Linsky et al., 1985). Nonetheless, numerous studies do show that mental conditions characterized by intrapsychic distress bepotastine are robust correlates of drinking to cope, including trait anxiety (Brown and Munson, 1987), depression and fear (Hussong et al., 2005; Martens et al., 2008), social anxiety (Tran et al., 2004), posttraumatic stress disorder (S. E. Ullman et al., 2005), anxiety sensitivity (O��Connor et al., 2008), personality pathology (Bruce et al., 2013), and generalized anxiety (Litt et al., 2013). The breadth of these findings, along with those showing that significant negative life transitions (e.g., job loss) and chronic stress (e.g.
